*Identify as many parts of speech as you can in the following sentence.

Mr. Donelson gave the students

an introductory lesson on

grammar and syntax.

 Give an example of the following:

homophone

homonym

homograph

Grammars of English exist in many different ways
*categorization
*terminology
*region of use

Descriptive Rules

describe: to tell about something

Descriptive rules tell us about how we use grammar

Prescriptive rules

prescribe: the act of telling someone to do something

Prescriptive rules tell us what you should do

Why study grammar?
shows level of sophistication and civilization

 Can you say,

"Do you want fries with that?"

 Simple sentence (Independent clause) S-V
Multiple sentences
Compound sentence (2 or more simple)
S-V, conj S-V.
Complex (1 dependent and 1 or more independent.)

Sentence types

Declarative (statements)
Interogative (questions)
Imperative (commands)
Exclamative (exclamations)

 Active vs. passive
Donelson threw the book.(active)
The book was thrown by Donelson.(passive)

 Subject, Predicate, Verb
Auxiliary
i.e. could have been
Main verb
i.e. swim

I could have been swimming.

 Operator
subject/operator/
predicate
operators are auxiliary or linking or helping verbs
1. Questions are formed by subject/operator inversion
2. We put not after the operator to make negative sentences
3. Operators carry the stress in a sentence
4. operators often substitute for the predicate.

 Write a declarative sentence. Then rewrite it inverting the subject and operator to form a question.

Statement:

Question:

 Rewrite the sentence,using a dummy operator to form a question.

Statement:

I have a pencil you can use.

Question:

 Underline the complete subject in the following statements.

The whole class thought Mr. Donelson was a dummy class operator.

It was raining outside when he answered their call.

Kip Greenhill, principal of Upper Arlington High School, has a red phone in his office connected to the Batmobile.

 Subject
1) Position-before the verb in declaratives
after the operator in questions
2) subject is absent in imperatives
3) most verbs follow the singular "S" rule
4) some pronouns are distinctive in the subject
(I, you, he, she, they)
5) The subject decides the reflexive pronoun.

 Pick the right answer.

Leave the room immediately. (declarative/imperative)

At once, the student (walk, walks) out to the hallway.

(I, me) will speak to (him, he) after class.

He will hate (himself, herself) for being noisy later.

 Underline the direct objects.

Bond drove the Aston-Martin to the M's headquarters.

He threw his hat on Moneypenny's hat tree.

Then he blew her a kiss before seeing M.

M gave Bond a top-secret assignment.

Q designed special equipment to help Bond out of a tight pinch.

 Subject Complement

If a verb requires a subject complement (SC) , the verb is a linking verb.
is, appear, become, seem, feel, get, look, sound

SVO: Subject + (Transitive ) Verb + (Direct) Object
SVC: Subject + (Linking) Verb + (Subject) Complement

 Underline the subject complements.

Outside headquarters, the day seemed lovely.

SPECTRE is his biggest enemy.

It has become a world leader in terrorism.

 Intransitive verbs and adverbials
if a main verb does not require another element to complete it, the verb is intransitive.
SV: Subject + (Intransitive) Verb
Optional items in these sentences are called adverbials.
Adverbs are words, adverbials are sentence elements
Adverbials convey a range of information about the situation depicted in the basic structure.

 Underline all the adverbials below.

A few days ago, Blofeld was seen in Moscow.

The terrorist leader quietly celebrated his latest attack with a few close friends.

Without Bond on the case, Blofeld might have had a chance at world domination.

 State whether the adverbial is optional (an adverbial) or obligatory (an adverbial complement)

The bad guys vigorously fought Bond.

With cunning intelligence, he defeated them at their own game.

Nowadays, fewer people are in fear of a Cold War.

 Circle any direct objects and underline any indirect objects.

Q gave Bond a watch with a spinning razor face.

He saw a new car that he liked.

Q showed Bond the car's special features.

 Direct object and complement
His jokes (S) made (TV) the audience (DO) uneasy. (OC)
The audience (S) is (LV) uneasy. (SC)

 Identify the direct object and complements.

Bond made the criminal nervous.

The Secret Service is grateful.

 Noun phrases

main word is a noun

basic structure:
(Determiner) (Premodifier) noun (postmodifier)

books, those books
history books
some long books
books about Canada
some books on astronomy
popular books on psychology
some popular books on astronomy

I occasionally read. . .

 Underline the noun phrases in the sentences below.

ex. The small children played in the yard.

01. Every spring, students go on spring break.

02. Most students travel to Florida.

03. There they and their friends bath in the sun
for a week.

04. In the evenings, students drive their cars
along the beaches.

05. Excessive drinking by students is a problem.

 Determiners

predeterminers: all, both, half

central determiners: a, an, the, those

postdeterminers: other, two, first

Examples of combination:

All those other problems

both our two daugthers

 Circle the determiner in the following sentences.

01. Both dogs love to run.

02. All the cats in the neighborhood get out of the
way.

03. Those two dogs can really keep you on your
toes.

04. I broke a leash one time and had to chase
them for three hours.

05. Needless to say, they had to spend the night
in the doghouse!

 Modifiers

words that change the meaning of other words,
giving greater detail to the word

a long, hot summer

a nasty gash in his chin which needed medical attention

 Indicate whether the underlined noun phrase contains a premodifier (PRE) a postmodifier (POST), or both.

ex. ______ Violence on television is increasing.

01. ______ Television violence is responsible for teen violence, some experts say.

02. ______ Numerous people are often killed violently on TV.

03. ______ Younger children who watch violent shows often behave more violently than their friends or parents.

 Relative clause

"a clause that relates"

He had a nasty gash which needed medical attention.

He had a nasty gash.

The gash needed medical attention.

Use a relative pronoun to connect the two.

who and which are very common relative pronouns

 Combine the sentences below to make one sentence with a relative clause.

Ex.
A man was hospitalized yesterday.
The man was seriously injured in an auto accident.

A man who was seriously injured in an auto accident was hospitalized yesterday.

01. Many cacti retract their heads into the soil during hot, dry spells. These cacti are small and single-stemmed.

02. Human infants pass through a critical period.
This period lasts a few years.

 Appositive clauses

an embedded clause introduced by the word 'that' which gives more substance to the clause it is within.

You know the reason that I am angry today.

 Determine whether the underlined clause is relative (R) or appositive (A).

01. I rejected the idea that he should be accepted late.

02. The book contradicted my belief that a nuclear war is inevitable.

03. One cannot dispute the fact that a college education helps an individual get a good job.

 Apposition

Check by "opposite position"

Darth Vader, the Dark Lord of Sith, is evil personfied.

The Dark Lord of Sith, Darth Vader, is evil personifed.

Double check by using "is"

Darth Vader is the Dark Lord of Sith.

 Underline the appositive in the following sentences.

01. My English teacher, a man with a weird sense of humor, is quite strange.

02. He tries hard to relate to his students, students who he cares deeply about.

03. We will read a science fiction novel, Fahrenheit 451, as our next major unit.

04. Ray Bradbury, a science fiction guru, wrote F451.

05. A science fiction guru, Ray Bradbury, wrote F451.

 Coordination

You are a clumsy oof or a lousy goof!

... the act of linking phrases or clauses

frustrated and desperate students

 Rewrite the ambigous, coordinated phrases below.

01. my favorite foods and beverages

02. very old and wonderful memories

03. our properties and other businesses

 Complexity

Noun phrases have complexity

they can be embedded in. . .
clauses
appositional structures
and
linked noun phrases

 Use parentheses to isolate noun phrases.

The latest certified horror story involved a Delta Airlines jumbo jet that drifted 60 miles off course over the North Atlantic and came within 100 feet of colliding with a continental Airlines jet on Wednesday.

 Noun functions

*Subject (S)
*direct object (DO)
*indirect object (IO)
*subject complement (SC)
*object complement (OC)
*complement of a preposition (CP)
*premodifier of noun (PrM)
*adverbial (A)

 Underline the noun phrases in the sentences below and identify its function by writing it above the phrase.

01. Some people oppose competitiveness in games.

02. Games are usually competitive activities.

03. Most sprots programs develop skills through competition.

04. In competitive games, someone loses every time.

 The verb phrase

main verb

possible of up to four auxiliary verbs

 Underline the verbs and auxiliaries.

1. He spoke to the class.

2. He has spoke to the class before.

3. He has been speaking to the class every day.

 Identify the verb form.

1. _______In the past, sports has been available mainly to males.

2. _______Adults viewed sports as unsuitable or even harmful to girls.

3. _______Several court cases may have helped the crusade for women's sports.

4. _______Federal law prohibits sexual discrimination in any school that receives federal funding.

 Specify the tense in the underlined words below.

1. The price of oil has increased considerable this month.

2. Prices dropped in the past because of an oil glut.

3. But today, prices continue to rise seemingly everyday.

4. Undoubtedly, they will continue to flucuate.

 Aspect
the grammatical category for the way that the time of the situation is viewed by the speaker/writer
Two forms: perfect and progressive
Present perfect: indefinite period that leads to the present
Past perfect: a situation earlier than another situation set in the past
Present progressive: i.e. You are neglecting me.
Past progressive: i.e. We were neglecting you.

 Identify the underlined verb as present perfect, past perfect, present progressive, or past progressive.

1. ________________The family was taking a vacation when their house was robbed.

2. ________________I have lived here since they were robbed.

3. ________________ I had heard that lightning never strikes the same place twice.

4. ________________ I am hoping they won't rob the same place again.

 Voice
active vs. passive

do I have to say any more?

 Identify if the sentence is active or passive.

1. The FBI is investigating the crime.

2. The crime was investigated by the FBI.

3. The victim was killed by the butler.

4. The butler escaped through the kitchen.

 Expressing future time

through simple present tense

Though he must be crazy, Donelson teaches English.

through the use of will

I will be gone tomorrow.

through the use of be going to

I'm going to a funeral.
We're playing your team next week.

 Sequence of Auxiliaries

auxiliaries must occur in the following order:

1) modals: i.e. can, may, will

2) perfect auxiliary i.e. have

3) progressive auxiliary i.e. be

4) passive auxiliary i.e. be

gaps in the sequence are, of course, normal

 Finite and Nonfinite verb phrases

a finite verb is a verb that carries a contrast in tense between present and past and may be marked for person and number.

We enjoy Grammar Moments every day.

We enjoyed 8th grade last year.

Nonfinite:
infinitive. . .to phone
-ing participle. . . phoning
-ed participle. . . have phoned

 Identify the underlined words as Finite or Nonfinite.

1. The games will be played tomorrow unless it rains.

2. The conductor is stopping the train to let off a passenger.

3. Computers have revolutionized the twentieth century.

4. Teachers use computers as a means of creating Grammar Moment quizzes.

 Mood
1. indicative (usually in declarative, interogative and exclamatory)
Roger has known me for a long time.
What a heavy coat you are wearing!

2. imperative has the base form
Stop them!
3. subjunctive: present and past
present subjunctive has the base form used in that clauses after the expression of the request
We demand that he take the stand.
Past subjunctive when not sure situation will happen or is happening
were

 Specify if the underlined verb is indiciative, imperative, present subjunctive, or past subjunctive.

1. How well does Rosie play?

2. Be quiet!

3. Heaven forbid that the teacher should interfere their conversation.

4. If I were you, I would keep quiet.

 Multi-word verbs
some followed by participles such as at, away, by

Phrasal verbs: give in, blow up
(particle is intransitive or can come before or after object in transitive form)
All students handed in their chapters. or
All students handed their chapters in.

Prepositional verbs: look after, approve of
(require an object to complete it)
Peter is looking after his elderly parents.

phrasal-prepositional: look down on, catch up on
Why do you look down on me?

 Identify whether the multi-word verb is phrasal, prepositional, or phrasal-prepositional.

1. Grammar is so tough! I give in. (surrender)

2. Stacey cared for the puppies. (tend)

3. I have put up with your antics for far too long! (tolerate)

4. John looked up Mary's number.

5. He blamed the accident on the weather.

6. We will catch up on Writing Moments tomorrow.

 Adjective Phrase

the main word is an . . .

Basic structure

premodifier (qualifies the adjective) extremely
adjective happy
postmodifier (qualifies the adjective) indeed
complement (completes implication) about recess.

Tom is very afraid of spiders.

 Provide complements for each adjective.

1. The woman is aware.

2. John is able.

3. I am always suspicious.

4. It is sometimes possible.

5. Steve was doubtful.

 Functions

1) premodifier in a noun phrase (PreM)
Our former enemies and allies are now our economic competitors.

2) subject complement (SC)
The photos were quite professional.

3) Object complement (OC)
My parents made me aware of my duties.

4) postmodifier in a noun phrase (Post)
I saw something bizarre today.

 Underline each adjective prhase and write its function above it.

1. The heroic old pro lies in his bed. He is sick.

2. He has a rare viral infection.

3. The drugs he takes make him nauseous and gassy.

4. The surgeon tells him in his slow, subdued voice that he has a very strong heart.

 Structure of the adverb phrase
Premodifier
Adverb
postmodifier
complement

frank
very frankly
frankly enough
very frankly indeed
surprisingly for her

 Underline the adverb phrases.

1. The voters wrote very forcefully about the issue.

2. Disposing of nuclear waste is a problem that recently has gained much attention.

3. Authorities are having difficulties finding solutions where nuclear waste can be disposed of safely.

4. There is always the danger of the waste leaking very gradually from the containers in which it is stored.

 Functions of Adverb phrases

1) modifier of an adjective

The description was remarkably accurate.

2) modifier of an adverb

The new drug was hailed, somewhat prematurely,
as the penicillin of the 90's.

Most modifiers are intensifiers: they indicate degree.

 Underline the adverb phrase and state its function.
A (Adverbial), M Adj (Modifier of an adjective) or M Adv (modifier of an adverb)

1. The navy's military and financial future seems bleak, but it now enjoys quite good morale.

2. However, it has recovered from the very troubled early 70s.

3. No serious racial clashes have occured recently.

 Prepositional phrase

Preposition
complement

1) complement as a noun phrase
through the window

2) complement as a nominal relative clause
from what I heard

3) complement as ing clause
after speaking to you

 Underline the prepositional phrase. Circle the preposition in the phrase. If a prep. phrase is embedded in another, underline it twice.

1. It may come as a surprise to you that massage is mentioned in ancient Hindu chinese writings.

2. It is a natural therapy for aches and pains in the muscles.

3. The swedish technique of massage emphasizes improving circulation through manipulation.

 Functions of prepositions

1) postmodifier of a noun
I took several courses in journalism.

2) complement of an adjective
I was not aware of her whining problem.

3) adverbial
In my opinion, people behave differently in English class.

 Underline each prepositional phrase and state its function above it. PN (Postmodifier of a noun), CA (complement of an adjective) or A (Adverbial)

1. The leader of the gang was in a lot of trouble.

2. Politicians in the United States must raise large sums of money if they want to get elected.

3. The days are gone when a candidate could win with little campaign money.

 Word classes

Closed
pronouns, determiners, auxiliaries, conjunctions, prepositions

Open (to new words)
Nouns, adjectives, main verbs, adverbs

 Word classes and uses

homo- "one"
phone- "sound"
graph- "writing"

homophones (weigh/way)

homonyms
(peer, peer)

homographs
(row, line of objects, row, quarrel)

 Noun suffixes

certain suffixes can be added to verbs to create nouns.

these suffixes also allude to the words meaning
-tion i.e. ratification, the act of ratifying
-er i.e. baker, one who bakes
-ing i.e. building, the result of someone who builds
-ity i.e. reality, the situation of being real
-ness i.e. happiness, the state of being happy

 Circle the suffix that indicates the word is a noun.

actuality
kindness
dismissal
exploration
walking
reviewer
banality
happiness
computer
configuration

 Noun classes

Nouns are either common or proper.
Proper are specific people, places or occasions, and usually begin with a capital letter.
Common nouns are nouns that are not names.

Concrete nouns refer to people, places or things.
i.e. girl, kitchen, car
Abstract nouns refer to qualities, states or actions.
i.e. humor, belief, action

Count nouns can be counted, are singular & plural
while non-count can not and are treated as singular

 Specify if the underlined nouns are common or proper, concrete or abstract, and count or non-count.

The strikers are picketing a company that hires nonunion workers.

Labor unions are on the decline in America.

Since the recession of the 1970s, many companies have climbed out of despair.

 Number

Count nouns make a distinction between singular and plural.

Regular plural ends in -s.

Usually just add the s, but sometimes you must use an -es (typically if the word ends with an s or a double consonant.)

Singular:bus, bush, church, page, disease
Plural: buses,bushes, churches, pages, diseases

Many words have irregular plurals

 Supply the plural form for the irregular singular words listed below.

criterion
deer
datum
analysis
child
phenomenon
life
basis
woman
alumnus

 Gender
Few are distinctive in English (unlike foreign languages)

English does have a few male and female nouns:
father/mother, boy/girl, host, hostess, hero/heroine, bull/cow, bridegroom/bride, widower/widow

Note the gender of the student in the next sentence is feminine.

The student was absent today because she was ill.

 Select the best sentence.
(We do not know the gender of the student.)

The student set off the fire alarm with his practical joke.

The student set off the fire alarm with her practical joke.

The student set off the fire alarm with his or her practical joke.

 Case

Nouns have two cases: common and genitive.

Common is what is usually used

Genitive indicates a noun is dependent on the noun that follows it.

Common case nouns: Jane, reaction

Genitive: Jane's

 
Determine whether the noun is common or genitive.

It is not hard to determine whether a word is common or genitive.

If the word's function is to show possession, it is genitive.

 Verb Suffixes

A main verb can be the main word in a verb phrase
Certain suffixes added to nouns or adjectives make main verbs

-ate chlorinate, orginate, differentiate
-en darken, hasten, sadden
-ify, -fy codify, falsify, simplify
-ize apologize, publicize, rationalize

 
Circle the suffix that indicates the word is a verb.

harden
chlorinate
prioritize
maginfy
reiterate
conceptualize
loosen
complicate
dignify
legalize
signify

 Irregular verbs
There are over 250 irregular verbs.

Outside of the highly irregular verb to be, these seven rules apply:
1) past and -ed participle are irregular, but the endings are iregular
base, past, -ed participle i.e.
bend, bent, bent have, had, had

2) past and the -ed participle are different, the base and past vowel are identical and the -ed participle ends irregularly in -n.
saw, sawed, sawn show, showed, shown

 3) The past and -ed participle are identical, but the endings are irregular and there is a change in vowel.
keep, kept, kept lose, lost, lost hear, heard, heard

4) The past and ed participle are different the vowel changes
speak, spoke, spoken blow, blew, blown wear, wore, worn

5) The base, past, and -ed participle are identical. There is no suffix in the past or participle. cut, cut, cut split, split, split

6) the past and ed participle are the same. no vowel change or suffix. feed, fed, fed

7) past and -ed are different, no suffix , vowel changes
begin, began, begun run, ran, run, swing, swang, swung

 Circle the suffix that indicates the word is an adjective.

careless
delightful
ragged
sandy
specific
boisterous
healthy
cultural
creative
erroneous
suicidal
rustic
snobbish

 Adjective classes

Adjectives can be divided into three classes by function:
1) Premodifier of a noun (attributive)

2) Subject complement (predicative)

3) object complement (predicative)

Central adjectives can be used in all three functions.

 Indicate whether each adjective below is central or whether it is only atttributive or only predicative.
ex.
lovable
central
Bella is a lovable dog. (attributive)
Bella is lovable. (predicative)
The children found Bella lovable. (predicative)

ancient

extreme

tired

 Gradability and comparison

Adjectives are gradable, meaning they can be arranged on a scale.

a bit good, somewhat good, quite good, very good
Intensifiers indicate the point on the scale.

Three degrees of comparison:
1) Higher
comparative Ann is politer than Mike.
superlative Ann is the politest of them.
2) Same Ann is as happy as Mike.
3) lower Ann is less caustic than Mike.

 Write sentences using the adjectives below to show what the parentheses indicate.

1. tall (absolute)

2. handsome (superlative)

3. risky (comparative)

 Circle the suffix that indicates the word is an adverb.

suddenly
edgewise
logistically
candidly
crosswise
personallly
domestically
cowardly
education-wise
clumsily

 Gradability and comparison

Like adjectives, adverbs are typically gradable

(that means they can be modified by intensifiers and take comparison.)

late, later, latest

good, better, best

far, farther, farthest

little, less, least

 Write out the comparative and superlative forms of each adverb.

1. happily

2. soon

3. wisely

4. much

 Pronoun classes

personal I, you
possessive mine, yours
reflexive myself, yourself

make distinction in person, gender and number

demonstrative this, that, these, those
reciprocal each other, one another
interogative who, what
indefinite some, none

the antecedent is the subject the pronoun must agree with

  Circle the antecedents of the underlined pronouns and determiners.

1. The student tried his hardest to pass the Grammar Moment quiz.

2. Teachers have found they have a mortifying effect on their students.

3. In a recent survey, the blood pressure of students was measured while they were taking a Grammar Moment quiz.

 Personal pronouns
nominative
subjective objective

first person, sing. I me
plural We us

second person
singular/plural you you

third person
singular he, she him, her
plural they them

Specify the person (first, second, third), number (singular or plural), and case (subjective, objective) of theunderlined pronouns.

1. The teacher made us write for the entire period.

2. Teachers understand that they are the hope for the next generation.

3. If Mr. Donelson can fit it into his schedule, he will see Star Wars again.

 Is the underlined word a possessive determiner or a possessive pronoun?

1. The teacher spoke to the class about its current homework assignment.

2. The book is mine, not the library's.

3. If your needs are not met in childhood, you could grow up feeling deprived and isolated.

4. The young girl claimed the doll was hers.

 Reflexive pronouns

first person singular myself
first person plural ourselves
second sing/plural yourself
third person sing. himself,herself, itself
third person plural themselves

1) they refer to the same thing as the subject does

2) they give emphasis to a noun phrase.

Fill in the blanks with the appropriate reflexive pronoun.

1. The teenage boy gave _____________ credit for doing a good job on the report.

2. The class helped ____________ to the candy.

3. Mr. Donelson _____________ is responsible for teaching the freshman grammar.

4. The students claimed they could do the project by ______________.

 Demonstrative pronouns

singular this that

plural these those

This is for you.

(Demonstratives may also be determiners)

This letter is for you.

If it stands for something else, it is a pronoun.

 Is the underlined word a demonstrative pronoun or a demonstrative determiner?

1. Don't you just love this class?

2. Everyone must enjoy these Grammar Moments.

3. That is the greatest compliment I have ever heard.

 Reciprocal pronouns

each other one another

each other's one another's

The partners trusted each other fully.

 Interrogative pronouns

Personal subjective, who

personal objective, whom

personal genitive, whose

Which can be either personal or nonpersonal

What is normally only nonpersonal.

 Identify if the pronoun is subjective, objective or genitive.

1. What are you doing?

2. Who is going to lead the next class discussion?

3. Which of the two choices do you think would be best to make?

 Relative Pronouns

introduce relative clauses

subjective objective genitive

personal who whom whose

nonpersonal which which whose

that that

If a sentence omits a relative pronoun, the omitted pronoun is called a zero relative pronoun

 Rewrite the sentence to delete the relative pronouns.

1. He was the man to whom we donated the gift.

2. The senator of Ohio was the man for whom we campaigned.

 Indefinite pronouns and numerals
(the largest group of pronouns)

examples:
many, one, other, no one, more, either, both, fewer, everybody

two different sets: some ______, any______

Numbers may be used as pronouns

Cardinal: Three, Seventeen, etc

Ordinal: First, second, third, etc

 Identify whether the underlined pronoun is personal, possessive, reflexive, demonstrative, reciprocal, interrogative, relative or indefinite.

1. Individuals who buy tickets early get a discount.

2. We must take the initiative ourselves.

3. These Grammar Moments are really teaching me something!

 Classes of determiners (review)

predeterminers

central determiners

post determiners

all
those
other problems

 Central Determiners

1. definite articles. . .the

2. indefinite articles. . .a or (before a vowel) an

3. demonstratives . . .this, that, these, those

4. possessives. . . my, our, your, his, her, its, their

5. interogatives. . . what, which, whose

6. relatives. . .which, whose, whatever, whichever, whosoever

 Identify if the underlined words are definite articles, demonstratives, possessives, interogatives, relatives, or indefinites.

1. Many people dislike the taste of liver.

2. It ranks right up there with the taste of cod oil.

3. What plans do you have for the weekend?

 Contrast of Articles and Reference
1. generic and nongeneric
generic when referencing to a class as a whole
Dogs make good pets. (generic)
nongeneric when referencing individuals
Bring in the dogs. (nongeneric)

2. specific and nonspecific
specific refers to a particular person
Pat married a New Yorker. (specific person)

3. definite and indefinite
NPs are definite when they intend to convey
enough information to identify what they refer to.

 Identify if the underlined word is generic or non-generic. If non, indicate if they are specific or non-specific, definite or indefinite.

1. The dinosaur is now extinct.

2. A woman walked into the store.

3. Teachers are often overcriticized and underpaid.

 Predeterminers

words that modify before central determiners

double her fee

half a loaf

all their problems

such a mess

what a good idea

Postdeterminers

Postdeterminers come after central determiners

they include cardinal and ordinal numbers

the three largest rooms
our first apartment

they include many, few and little

the little furniture I have

Classes of Auxiliaries

Primary auxiliaries are . . .be, have, do

1. be is for progressive (was playing)
passive (was played)

2. have for the perfect (has played)

3. do as the dummy operator (did play)

 Indicate if the underlined auxiliary is progressive, perfect, or a dummy operator.

1. He has played this game before!

2. Did you play before today?

3. I was playing when I was 8 years old.

The meanings of the modals

modals express two main types of meaning:

1) human control over events as is involved in permission, intention, ability or obligation
you may leave now. (I give you permission)
I could speak Greek when I was young. (I knew how)
You must go to bed at once. (I require you. .)

2) judgment whether an event was, is, or will likely to happen
they may be on vacation (it is possible)
that could be your mother. (possible)

 Paraphrase the meaning of the modals in the sentences below.

1. I can speak three languages.

2. Students must be required to take a foreign language in college.

3. They should realize, however, that multilingualism has many benefits.

Conjunctions

1) coordinators link units of equal status
and, or, but
I enjoy novels and short stories.
correlatives expressions may reinforce coordinators
both Susan and her brother

2) subordinators introduce subordinate clauses
after, although, as, because, before, if, since, that, till , unless, until, when, where, while
subordinator: I saw her after I had the interview.
preposition: I saw her after the interview.

 Makeup sentences containing the conjunctions below.

1. after

2. either. . . or

3. because

Prepositions
prepositions introduce prepositional phrases and are followed by prepositional complements

I had an argument in a supermarket.

Prepositions: words anywhere a squirrel can run
about the attic, above the ground, across the wire, after the nuts, against the wind, among the leaves, around the trunk, etc.

 Identify if the underlined words are subordinators or prepositions.

I was quite ill until yesterday.

Because over two feet of snow fell, the city was paralyzed.

A few people died from the blizzard.

Sentence types (review)

1. declaratives for statements
2. interogatives for questions
3. imperatives for directives
4. exclamatives for exclamation

 Identify the following types of questions.

1. Are you really going to wear that?

2. What were you thinking?

3. Plaid high water pants are out, don't you know?

 Rewrite to make each sentence an imperative.

1. You should not stay out later than midnight.

2. You might offer to let them stay the night.

3. Nobody can leave until the police search the building.

Exclamatives
begin with what or how

What a good show it was!
How hard she works!

  Use the underlined word to make the sentences below exclamative.

1. The paintings look peculiar.

2. He's been acting foolish for the past two weeks.

3. It's been extremely cold all week.

Speech acts

Speech acts convey what we want despite not using the usual prescribed form for getting it.

It's getting late. (request for someone to leave)
Tell me your phone number. (request for info)
Do you want a seat? (offer)
Don't touch. (Prohibition)
I won't be late. (promise)

 Specify the purpose of each speech act.

1. Do you mind changing seats?

2. Help yourself to a soda pop.

3. Showers are likely on Wednesday.

4. Did you drive today?

 Join the sentences.

Use a conjunction

1. We arrived at the airport about 9 a.m.
We then took a taxi to the hotel.

Use a semicolon

2. We spent a long time in turbulent air. It was a rough trip.

Complex Sentences
A complex sentence is a multiple sentence in which are embedded one or more subordinate clauses.

Everybody knows that Star Wars is the ultimate science fiction trilogy.
When Episode I comes out in April, Donelson will be one of the first to see the movie.

 Underline the embedded subordinate clause in the sentences below.

Because Yoda is a teacher, he is Mr. Donelson's favorite Star Wars character.

By adding more to his Star Wars collection, he may need to build a bigger house!

 Indicate if the sentence contains an -ing, -ed, infinitive, or verbless clause.

Having finished their homework, the students asked for more.

They wanted to show him their devotion.

Impressed with their attitude, he refused.

Though mindful of their education, he gave them a break.

Subordinate clause functions
1. nominal clauses
subject
subject complement
direct object
prepositional complement

2. Modifier or complement clauses
relative clause (modifier)
comparative clause

3.Adverbial clauses

 Identify the function of the following subordinate clauses.

Paying attention will help my grade.

The only problem in this is to close my mouth while others are talking.

I know that a respectful class has pleased Mr. Donelson 1st period.

I will listen to what Mr. Donelson has to say.

Sentence Complexity

The Great Lakes states warned pregnant women and nursing mothers to avoid eating certain Great Lakes fish, and they advised the rest of us to avoid certain fatty species and to limit the consumption of other fish.

 There structures

There is expressions are like marshmallows.

They can be digested but they have no nutritonal value.

Eliminate them

 Rewrite each sentence to eliminate the there is structure.

There is a time and place for everything.

There is no one like my wife when it comes to loving me.

 Cleft sentences

divided into two parts, one with greater emphasis

It was Thomas Edison who invented the electric lamp.

Pseudo-cleft have same purpose

What I want is a good sleep.

 Write the sentence to make a cleft or pseudo cleft that emphasizes the underlined words.

We read a novel by Harper Lee in English class last month.

Lee is one of the best authors we have read so far.

 Anticipatory it

It is unusual to have a nominal clause as the subject of the sentence.

That the season has started so early seems a pity.

usually, the order is reversed.

It seems a pity that the season has started so early.

 Convert the sentences to include an anticipatory IT.

Whether we learn all the grammar that is out there doesn't matter.

That we are behind is not true.

To have lengthy grammar moments are unnecessary.

 Punctuation

...helps readers understand your written prose.

... establish consistency

Some marks indicate pauses in our speech, though not all pauses are marked.

Others work to create emphasis.

 Sentence fragments / fragmentary sentences

A sent frag is a set of words punctuated as a sentence yet is not by definition.

1) subordinate clauses

I woke up late the next morning. My head throbbing.

2) loosely joined phrases

Our class has been rowdy this year. Especially during the last two months.

3) Coordinated expressions

They have abandoned their homes. And taken all their possessions with them.

Fragmentary sentences are grammatically incomplete but can be completed from verbal context.

 Rewrite the sentences below to avoid sentence fragments.

Students often include information in drafts that they do not need. For example, extra commas.

Punctuation problems are found in upperclassmen papers. Whereas clarity problems are found in the freshman papers.

 Run-on and comma splice

Run on needs punctuation

I used to be afraid of him I have since gotten to know him.

Comma splice tries to use comma incorrectly

(usually occur with linking adverbs or prepositional phrases

They lost the battle, nevertheless, they were determined to win the war.

 Correct the run-on and comma splice errors.

One of the more popular methods of lengthening a paper is to double space it, this method is used by amateurs.

Teachers are smart enough to know this trick They can spot an amateur several drafts away.

 Coordinated Main clauses

central coordinators: and, or and

but

marginal coordinators: for, nor,

so, yet

You can either be quiet or take

your seat in the hall.

A storm damaged their radio, yet

they were able to send messages.

 Insert commas to separate main clauses joined by central and marginal coordinators.

The student was very anxious about her upcoming grammar moment quiz and she spent many hours studying for it.

She had always wanted to be a grammarian but she was still nervous about whether she would pass the test.

 Direct speech

reports actual words someone has said or written

reporting clause - he said, she said

Initial reporting clause

She told them, "Shut up!"

if long, use a colon.

final reporting clause - "Don't tread on me," he said.

medial reporting clause -

"Donelson is ambivalent," he said, "about whether students care."

 Insert quotation marks where necessary.

Are you a slave? Padme asked.

I work for Watto, Anakin said sadly.

Is it true Padme asked that you built C3PO yourself?

 Citations

When a word or phrase is cited - quoted or mentioned in a different way, it is either double quotation marked or italicized (underlined)

long and whole or underlined if

hand written

"short or part"

 Question marks

end of an interrogative sentence. Duh.

Restrictive and Nonrestrictive

relative clauses

Restrictive: identify more closely

what the nouns refer to

They painted the house that they bought last year.

I will suspend a student who disrupts class.

Nonrestrictive do not identify but offer more info

Max, who belongs to the Loreal group, colored his hair.

 Leave the unrestrictive clauses unpunctuated. Punctuate the restrictive clauses.

She phoned the Star Wars Hotline which gave her the proper answer.

Lucas' Star Wars release date scheduled to release a new movie every two years began with Episode I.

Students who hate Star Wars should have their Science Fiction Fan club cards revoked.

Apposition

expresses a relationship of some

equivalance between two units

The civil servants often switch from English, the official language, to their native language.

 Leave the restrictive appositives unpunctuated. Punctuate the nonrestrictive appositives with commas.

The school board objected strongly to the recommendation that good students be released from school early.

The school superintendent Bill Schaefer asked that I join him for dinner on Friday to discuss this recommendation.

School apathy has two primary sources students and teachers.

Adverbial clauses

Introductory clauses (usually nonfinite and verbless) are usually enclosed in commas
When asked to leave, he stormed out of the room.

Medial are always punctuated
The teacher, disgusted with his actions, blew up.

Final position clauses depend on the sentence
"Come back if you can calm down!"

If it provide extra, (unnecessary info) punctuate

Class will continue with Grammar Moments, short units on selected items of grammar.

 Punctuate the adverbials that require it.

Because it requires little intellectual activity many students enjoy television.

Fed up with the banality of television some have taken to reading.

Although books require quite a bit of mental energy on the part of the reader they are ultimately more satisfying than TV.

Vocatives and interjections

Vocatives are phrases, commonly
names, that directly address the
person spoken to.

Can you tell me, Caroline,
what I have to do next?

Where did you get your Loreal hair color, Max?
Oh, I see, at the beauty salon.

  Punctuate the vocatives and interjections below.

Brian you don't know what you're doing.

Oh I wasn't aware that the teacher was trying to teach.

Yes Mr. Donelson I'm ready now.

Is that you Pat?

Hey make sure you make up any Grammar Moments you miss.

Avoidance of Misunderstanding

use commas to avoid possible
misunderstanding
After almost a decade of
trimming fat private colleges face
the prospect of still deeper cuts.
In short, discrimination is
ethically indefensible.

Put commas where needed for clarity.

1. As the season opens stores are putting on their sales.

2. When architecture changes occur clearly society is changing.

3. Although 92% Catholic Mexico lacks formal diplomatic ties with the Vatican.

Genitive Nouns (Possessives)

1. if noun is singular, add 's
2. if noun is plural, and ends in s,
add '
3. If noun is plural and does not
end in s, add 's
remember the one s rule

 Change the of-phrase into a genitive construction.

1. the father of Susan

2. the leaders of our country

3. the first papers of the students

Genitives of Pronouns

one's friend
nobody's fault
anybody's move

combination with else

someone else's coat

 Insert apostrophes where necessary.

1. Eds friends will arrive later.

2. The womans coat was destroyed at the cleaners.

3. For heavens sake, don't park on the grass.

Subject verb agreement

the verb agrees with the subject in number and person.
The noise distracts me.
The noises distract me.
The main noun determines the number of the phrase.
The noise of the demonstrators is distracting me.

 Select the word that agrees with the subject in number and person.

1. The slightest hint at a quiz (worry, worries) him.

2. The best students in the bunch do not (fear, fears) a coming quiz however.

3. The noise of the students ( is, are) distracting me.

And

The subject is plural if it consists of two or more phrases that are linked by and, even if each is
singular.
Your kitchen, your living room, and your dining room are too small.

It is also plural if and is implied though not actually present.

It is plural when one of the main nouns is implied though not actually present.

If the phrase begins with each or every, the subject is singular.

 Write a sentence using and to show objects in a series.

Write a compound sentence using and as the conjunction

Or

if the noun phrase is linked by or, either/or, neither/nor, verb maybe S or Pl.

When both are Pl, the verb is plural.

When one is S and one is plural, follow your style manual.

 Write a sentence that conjoins two plural objects.

Write an either/or sentence.

With

When a S noun phrase is linked to a following noun phrase by a preposition such as with, the subject is S even though the prep is similiar in meaning to and.
The subject is singular because the main noun is S.
Other prepositions used in the same way:
as well as
in addition to
after

 Circle the proper verb to accompany a subject that includes with.

1. The President, together with the Cabinet, (is, are) considering how to react to the media attacks.

2. The newspapers, as well as the magazines, (is, are) rallying the support of the readers.

 Collective Nouns
A collective noun refers to a group

examples:
team
army
audience
administration
crowd
herd
jury
public

when viewed as a unit, use singular
when viewed as individuals, use plural

 Circle the correct verb to make the collective noun subject agree with the verb.

The class (was, were) very noisy.

The public (has, have) a right to know.

All the team (is, are) in their places.
(All the team members. . .note the pronoun)

The faculty (has, have) not been able to agree among themselves about how severely to punish the troublemakers.

 Indefinite pronouns

Most indefinite pronouns take singular verbs.

Everyone is now here.
Someone has borrowed my Grammar Moment!

Some indefinite pronouns may be S or Pl.
(If some info is implied)

Some (of the material) is not suitable for children.
Half (the country) is under water.

Eliminate sexist bias by using plural pronouns.

 Circle the proper verb.

Somebody (has, have) taught me this lesson before.

Everyone (want, wants) to eliminate sexist bias.

Eliminate the sexist bias in the sentence below.

A student should prepare for his moment quiz in order to improve his score.

Quantity Phrases

Plural phrases of quantity or extent take singular verbes when the quantity is viewed as a unit.

Ten dollars is enough.

Two years seems too long to wait.

Otherwise, a plural is used.

One hundred and twenty Grammar Moments have passed since the first day of school!

 Circle the proper verb form.

Five loaves ( is,are ) a lot of bread.

Sixteen hours (seem, seems) like a long time to be in labor.

Twenty-five happy students (make, makes) my day.

 Singular Nouns in -S
Nouns ending in ics are singular when they refer to a field of study.

(If you can count it, then it refers to plural. Otherwise it is singular.)

S: He took Statistics.
PL: Your statistics are inacurrate.

Names of diseases with -s endings are generally singular.

Measles is a highly infectious disease.

 Circle the proper verb form.

Avionics ( is,are ) a high flying class.

The acoustics in this room (is, are) improving.

Rickets (is,are) a very painful disease.

 Who, That, Which

Who's that witch?
She's a relative pronoun!

who, that, and which have the same number as the nouns they refer to
S.
I have written a lunch detention for the student who is disrespecting me.
Pl.
People who live in glass houses should dress in the basement.

 Circle the proper verb.

I have noted the tension that (has, have) begun to rise in class.

She reported on the motions that (was, were) passed at the meeting.

You need special permission to drive the Batmobile which (is, are) kept in Room 110 overnight.

What

you may use S or Pl with the pronoun what
the choice depends on meaning

What worries me is whether you understand it.
(the thing that worries me. . .)

They live in what are called ranch houses.
(in houses that are called. . . )

 Circle the correct verb form.

What aggravates the teachers (is, are) sloppy handwriting.

They ride in what (is, are) called a landspeeder.

 There is, there are

Avoid using. Find the active verb instead, or simply eliminate if possible.

There is somebody waiting for you.

better:
Somebody is waiting for you.
or
Somebody waits for you.

 Rewrite the sentence to eliminate the there/is structure.

There is a lot of students in this class.

 Citations and Titles

always take a singular verb, even when they consist of plural phrases

"Star Wars" is a science fiction masterpiece.

 Circle the correct verb form.

"Children" (is, are) an irregular plural.

The Power and the Glory (is, are) a novel set in Mexico.

The Four Feathers (was, were) one of the first novels I read as a child.

Case:Subject Complement

when the SC is a pronoun, it is usually in the objective case.

It is me.

Not:

It is I.

 Circle the correct sentence.

That is him.

That is he.

 Case: Coordinated phrases

Make sure that a coordinated phrase uses the proper case, subjective or objective.

You and she will take charge. (Not you and her)

Everyone knows Nancy and me. (Not Nancy and I)

Test by using just the second pronoun.

She will take charge. (She is the subject)

Everyone knows me. (Me is the direct object)

 Fill in the appropriate pronoun in the coordinated phrase.

Lacrisha and ____________ went for a walk to talk. (I, me)

_____ Americans should be very grateful for what we have.
(we, us)

You will be working on the project with both Mary and ____
(she, her)

 After As and than

As and than are always conjunctions in comparisons.

The case of the pronoun depends on its function in the comparative clause, though the verb may be absent.

Check by expanding the comparison.

They felt the same way as he. (as he did).

She works faster than we. (than we do)

 Choose the correct pronoun for the situation.

I work harder than ( them, they)
Clue: (. . .do.)

They paid him more than (I , me).
Clue: (than they paid. . .)

He likes me more than (she,her).
Clue:(than he likes . . .)

After But
But meaning "except" is a preposition

In formal writing, the pronoun that follows it is always in the objective case.

I know everybody here but her.

Nobody but me can tell the difference.

 Fill in the correct pronoun.

1. Everyone voted for him but _________.

2. No one but __________ did his or her homework.

3. All the students except ________ came to class on time.

 After let

Use the objective case after let.

Let us examine the problem more carefully.

Let them make their own decisions.

Be sure to note coordinated pronouns receive the same treatment.

Let you and me take the matter in hand.

Let Bob and her say what they think.

 Fill in the correct pronoun.

1. Let ______ vote for who we want for president.

2. Let _______ ride in the car with us.

3. Let you and _____ wash the dishes.

 Who, whom

Who is subjective, Whom is objective

Use who in relative clauses (since who relates more information about the subject)

I am the teacher who likes Star Wars.
You are the student who lost the book.

Use whom when it follows a preposition

To whom do you wish to speak?
You are the student of whom the book belongs.

 Select the proper word. (who or whom)

1. _________ is running for class president?

2. To ________ should we address the package?

3. You are the one _________ is risking a poor grade.

4. You are the one to _________ the credit is due.

With -ing Clauses
When an -ing clause has a naming function and is proceded by a name or short personal noun phrase, it is to be put in the possessive form.

They were surprised at Gerald's refusing to join them.

I dislike Robert's seeing me cry.

 Fill in the correct genitive (possessive) personal noun or phrase.

1. They heard _________ opening the door. (Rhoda, Rhoda's)

2. They were annoyed at their _________telephoning after eleven. (neighbor, neighbor's)

 Problems with Auxiliaries

When the auxiliary have follows a modal, use have and not of.

I should have said something about it long ago.

Somebody else would have paid.

 Circle the correct response.

You might (have, of) helped me.

She could (have, of) become the mayor.

 Lie, Lay

Intransitive verb lie = reclining position

Transitive verb lay = to place.

Is she lying on the sofa?
The children lay asleep on the floor.

Are you laying a bet on the next race?
He laid his head on his arms.

 Fill in the correct response

Joan _______ down for a few hours.

George has been _______down the entire football game.

The teacher is ________ down the rules.

Sit, Set

sit is intransitive
set is transitive

base sit set
-s sits sets
-ing sitting setting
past sat set
-ed sat set

Sit down right now!
Set your books on the desktop.

 Choose the proper verb form (sit or set)

1. Sue _____________ down while the principal gave her a suspension.

2. She broke the bad news to her parents while she was _____________ the table for dinner.

3. They decided to _________ some new rules for her.

 Present Tense

Standard written English requires the -s inflection for third person singular and no -s elsewhere.

John says. I say.
She knows. We know.
It does. You do.
The dog bites. It bites.

use caution with negative contractions
does not becomes doesn't, NOT don't

 For each verb, list the -s form (3rd person singular present)

1. think
2. taste
3. say
4. imply
5. type
6. cry
7. make
8. wrong
9. push
10. die

 Past and -ed participle

Regular verbs have the same form for past and -ed participle.

Past: He laughed loudly.
-ed: He hasn't laughed so much for a long time.

Some irregular verbs have different forms.
She spoke to me about it.
She has spoken to me .

Avoid nonstandard forms.
I done my assignment. (Correct to did)

Past subjunctive and past
Past subjunctive is used to refer to situations that are unlikely or that are contrary to the facts.

I wish she were here.
He acts as if he were your enemy.

Were is the only past subjunctive (used for first and third person singular of the verb be in English)
In less formal style, the simple past was will do.

Omit if and front the auxiliary if the auxiliary in the conditional clause is were, had or should

Were she here now, there would be no problem.

 Circle the proper form for formal writing.

If I (was, were) you, I would listen to Donelson.

If Donelson (was, were) asked to go the extra mile for you, he would do it.

(Have, had) you listened to him, you would be a grammarian by now.

 Multiple Negation (Double negatives)

Use only one negative in a sentence.
They didn't say nothing. correct to say:
They didn't say anything.

Nobody never believes nothing I say.
Nobody believes anything I say.
(for good reason. you use double negatives!)

Negative adverbs include never, barely, hardly, scarcely
English does allow negative to preface words with negative prefixes if another word can't be found
I was not unhappy with your last quiz score.

 Rewrite to eliminate the double negative.

1. I can't hardly hear with so many people talking.

2. We didnt' do nothing wrong, so why are you upset?

3. Nobody has no alternative plans?

4. I am not undecided about a college choice.

 adverbs
Use an adjective if the word is the SC after an LV.
She looked angry.(N as S/LV/ adj as SC)
She feels bad.

Well is an Adj in "I don't feel well" but an adverb in "he didn't play well"

If the word characterizes the manner of action denoted by the verb, use an adverb
He hurt his neck badly. (not bad)

If the word is an intensifier, use the adverb.
Drive slowly. (not Drive slow)

 Correct the following sentences.

1. When she is in the mood, she writes really good.

2. The child is eating too quick.

3. When I last saw you, you spoke cheerful.

4. Do your pants feel tightly?

5. I didn't sleep too good last night.

Comparison
Most adj and adv are gradable (viewed on a scale)
less foolish, more foolish, most foolish

some words are controversial
complete, perfect, unique

If in doubt, do not treat these words as gradable

use comparative for two
use superlative for more than two

Fewer goes with count nouns
Less with noncount nouns.

 Circle the the best word.

1. The teacher is (wise, wiser, more wise, wisest) than the disruptive student.

2. The assignment was (perfect, perfectly) completed.

3. He was the (friendlier, friendliest) of them all

4. He had (fewer, less) poor scores than the other student.

 Only
the placement of only may affect the sentence

Only children can swim in the lake before noon. (not adults)
Children can only swim in the lake before noon. (not fish)
Children can swim only in the lake before noon. (not the pool)
Children can swim in the lake only before noon.
(not afternoon)

use caution with other words like also, even, just, and merely

 Rewrite the sentence to include the focusing adverb.

1. Home plate was a few feet away. (only)

2. She was running two miles. (merely)

3. He stretched a little more on his forearm shot. (just)

4. They suffer sports injuries. (too)

 Dangling Modifiers

Absolute clauses are nonfinite and verbless adverbial clauses that have their own subjects

They strolled by the river, their heads bare.

He nervously began his speech, his voice trembling.

If the adverbial has no subject of its own, the implied subject is generally the same as the sent.

Having spent all his money on a vacation to Hawaii, Norm applied to the bank for a loan.

 Rewrite to eliminate the dangling modifier.

1. Being blind, a dog guided her across the street.

2. After turning the radio off, the interior of the truck became silent.

3. When sick, the state makes social security payments.

4. Being an excellent student, her teacher gave her extra assignments.

Style in writing

Unlike spoken language where the speaker has little time to monitor what is said or the way it is said, formal (written) language allows the writer to revise and revisit the writing for the most clear communication.

The next grammar moments deal with things you can do to clearly communicate what is on your mind.

 End Focus

It is normal to arrange information in a message so the important information is at the end. This is called end focus. (Notice how I did it in the last sentence!)

consider:
Although they were not completely happy with it, the students adopted the teacher's resolution.

The students adopted the teacher's resolution, although they were not completely happy with it.

 Rewrite to show end focus.

1. Chicago is similiar in many ways to Baltimore.

2. The adminstrator's energy policy benefits the oil company

3. No other nation in the world consumes more oil than U.S.

4. Rats were crawling all over the building.

 Front Focus

If we place an expression in an abnormal position, the effect is to make the expression conspicuous.

Attitudes will not change overnight, but change they will.

Easily recognizable was the leader of the pack.

 Put the underlined part in front to give it strong emphasis.

1. The police force no longer excludes short persons.

2. They will sign, or they will not be freed.

3. He rejected the treatment only after thorough investigation.

There structures and cleft sentences
(a review)

Sometimes in RARE situations, there is gives greater prominence to the subject

There are no simple solutions. (finality)

Cleft sentences provide greater prominence to one part of the sentence by placing it after a semantically empty subject (it) and a semantically empty verb (be)

It was a human error that caused the explosion.

 Rewrite to make the sentences below a there structure and a cleft sentence respectively.

No reason exists to believe that Mr. Donelson is really Yoda.

The ending was the weakest part of the novel.

 Parenthetical Expressions

are marked by intonation in speech and by punctuation in writing

the effect of the interruption is to give greater prominence to the previous unit

Freud, of course, thought that he had discovered the underlying causes of many mental illnesses.

In Australia, for example, he worked on the mental states of grieving kangeroos.

 Rewrite the sentences to include the adverbial as a parenthetical expression.

The committee was not as docile as the chairman expected. (as it happens)

On a Saturday afternoon you will see crowds in the parks. (perhaps)

Heart disease was the principal cause of death. (however)

 End Weight
When there is a choice, put the longer expression at the end of the sentence. Otherwise,
the sentence seems clumsy and hard to read

The rate at which the American people are using up the world's supply of irreplaceable fossil fuels and their refusal to admit that the supply is limited is the real problem.

The real problem is the rate at which the American people are using up the world's supply of irreplaceable fossil fuels and their refusal to admit that the supply is limited.

 Rewrite the following sentences to make them clearer by making the predicate longer than the underlined subject.

An open letter beseeching all students to join the Star Wars fan club was issued.

A chance to earn incredible amounts of extra credit in your English class is offered.

Misplaced expressions

We show where an expression belongs by where we place it.

Consider:
Immediately afterwards I remembered having met her.

I remembered having met her immediately afterwards.

Use caution...does it say what you want it to mean?

 Rewrite to avoid the misplaced constructions that are underlined.

Brian asked how she was quite routinely.

He says sometimes he pays attention in class.

Treating children naturally can be pleasant.

 Abstract Nouns

Sometimes rephrasing it to replace abstract nouns (or at least some of them) with verbs or adjectives.

Clumsy:
They should lessen their self-centeredness and increase their assistance to others.

improved:
They should be less self-centered and more helpful to others.

use the same idea for longwinded and redundant expressions

 Rewrite each sentence to eliminate the underlined, abstract nouns.

the decline of the dollar was noticed last week.

The importance of classroom respect is sometimes overlooked.

The bombing of the port by the army was unnecessary.

 Modifiers in noun phrases

Readers may find it difficult to understand noun phrases with two or more modifiers, esp. if they are incorrectly punctuated.

For example, If we write about American history, the term American history teachers makes sense. However, if taken out of context, misunderstanding may occur.

use prepositions to show your meaning
teachers of American history
American teachers of history

 Rewrite each noun phrase to make it read more clearly.

a real estate law specialist

applicant data information cards

rocket engine booster rockets

French language specialists

Subordination

It is sometimes better to split up a complex sentence.

She rehearsed the speech which she was to give to the comittee which distributed federal funds which had been allocated for training the unemployed.

make the last two which clauses nonfinite

She rehearsed the speech which she was to give to the comittee distributing federal funds allocated for training the unemployed.

 Rewrite the sentence to make it less complex.

The dark walls were enlivened by plants hanging from the walls, which gave off an array of colors through the dense cloud of thought which flowed through the air from the many people writing about Shakespeare, which kept their hands company while their mouths were busy with their Mountain Dews.

 Parallelism

Parallel structures are pleasing to read and emphasize meaningful relationships between ideas

Parallelism problems often occur around coordination

For example:
They failed the Moment Quiz because they did not listen and refusal to study.
Corrected:
They failed the Moment Quiz because they did not listen and they refused to study.

 Correct the faulty construction.

1. It is a word for people in a hurry and don't have time to speak good English.

2. She strolled down the aisle, her hair in curlers and a faded blouse.

3. She searched for documents, interviewed officials in charge of the programs, and she visited near Saigon.

 Repeated Sounds

Avoid putting words near each other if they sound the same or almost the same but have different meanings.

Industries and professions are finding it increasingly difficult to find people qualified in basic writing skills.
(Replace find with "recruit" or "hire")

The subject of my paper is the agreement between subject and verb in English.
(Replace the first "subject" with "topic.")

 Rewrite to avoid unnecessary repetition.

1. The audience was noisy at first, but later it became quite quiet.

2. The public was informed that a formal inquiry would soon be held.

3. He was active in extracurricular activities.

Pronoun reference
a pronoun generally refers back to another word or phrase (its antecedent) This reference must be clear.

The students worked during the vacation for individuals who were fussy about their work.
Clarified:
The students worked during the vacation for individuals who were fussy about the students' work.

Do not use a pronoun to refer vaguely to an antecedent that is implied but is not present.

 Rewrite so each reference to antecedent is clear.

1. Experience shows that when abortion laws are liberalized, they skyrocket.

2. I think you are making a mistake, but that is your decision.

3. The old man told his son that he could not smoke.

 Pronoun agreement

Pronouns should agree with their antecedents in number.
NO! Get a university map because they really help.
YES! Get a university map because it really helps.

Be consistent in use of pronouns.
NO! Every day you are bombarded with advertisements. It is up to us to decide what is worth buying.
YES! Every day you are bombarded with advertisements. It is up to you to decide what is worth buying.

 Rewrite each sentence to eliminate inconsistencies in pronouns.

1. If an individual is conscientious, they do homework on time.

2. If one can speak the language fluently, you can negotiate a better price.

3. Trying one's hardest to get in good shape can ruin your health if you're not careful.

 Tense Consistency

Be consistent in your tenses.

No!
A day later you start thinking about your autobiography assignment and then you realized that you had been neglecting it.

Yes!
A day later you start thinking about your autobiography assignment and then you realize that you have been neglecting it.

 Rewrite each sentence to eliminate inconsistencies in tense.

1. He seldom kept the public informed about his policies or take their advice.

2. The spheres rotate and sent out streams of light in every direction.

3. Once she knows a better way to study, she would feel much better

Sequence Consistency

IF you mention two or more items and then discuss them or give examples of them, it is clearer in the original order.

The committee had to decide whether to raise interest rates or to maintain them at their present levels. They faced a difficult choice. Raising the rates might cause a recession, whereas maintaining them at the same levels might worsen inflation.

 Rewrite the sentences to achieve sequential consistency.

The students in the class were glad that they were finally done with Grammar Moments and that the last Moment Quiz would soon be over. They abhorred the biweekly quizzes and hated the daily Grammar Moments.